Immunotherapy Drugs Market Developments by 2031
The immunotherapy drugs market is expected to grow from US$ 186.32 billion in 2021 to US$ 476.04 billion by 2031; it is expected to grow at a CAGR of 14.4% from 2022 to 2031.
Increasing demand for monoclonal antibodies has attributed to the growth of the immunotherapy drugs market. Monoclonal antibodies used in immunotherapy are produced artificially from a cell clone and therefore consist of a single type of immunoglobulin. They are targeted toward specific antigens and bind to the antigens to form a complex. Monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat diseases such as cancer, rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, systemic lupus erythematosus, and cardiovascular diseases. According to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), more than 450 monoclonal antibodies were approved till 2021. In February 2022, the FDA issued an emergency use authorization (EUA) for bebtelovimab a new monoclonal antibody that is effective against the omicron variant of SARS-CoV-2. The drug was effective in adult and pediatric patients with mild to moderate symptoms or in those who are at a high risk of progression to severe COVID-19.
MARKET DYNAMICS
The growth of the immunotherapy drugs market is majorly attributed to increasing demand for target diseases, rising demand for biosimilars and monoclonal antibodies, and rising adoption of immunotherapy drug categories compared to traditional treatment methods. However, challenges related to manufacturing immunotherapy drugs are hampering the growth of the market. Moreover, the rising demand for personalized medicinal treatments is driving the growth of the immunotherapy drugs market during the forecast period.
Strategic Insights
MARKET SCOPE
The “Global Immunotherapy Drugs Market Analysis to 2031” report aims to provide an overview of the immunotherapy drugs market with detailed market segmentation based on type, clinical indication, and end user. The report provides key market statistics based on the performances of the leading players. It also offers key trends and opportunities in the market.
MARKET SEGMENTATION
The global immunotherapy drugs market is segmented into type, clinical indication, and end user. Based on type, the market is segmented into vaccine adjuvants, dendritic cell activators & growth factors, T-cell stimulators & growth factors, immune checkpoint inhibitors, monoclonal antibodies, interleukins & interferons, and others. Based on indication, the market Is segmented into cancer, inflammatory diseases, autoimmune diseases, infectious diseases, and others. The end user segment is further segmented into hospitals & clinics, ambulatory surgical centers, and others.
The global immunotherapy drugs market is segmented into five major regions North America, Europe, Asia Pacific, Middle East & Africa, and South & Central America. The report covers analysis and forecast of 18 countries across the world along with trends and opportunities prevailing in the region.
From the regional perspective, North America dominates the immunotherapy drugs market with ~40% market share in 2021. The market growth in the region is majorly attributed to the presence of a large number of immunotherapy drug manufacturers such as F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Pfizer Inc., Merck & Co, Novartis International AG, Johnson & Johnson, Sanofi, and GlaxoSmithKline Plc. The below figure showcase the revenue growth trend in the North America immunotherapy drugs market:
IMPACT OF COVID-19 PANDEMIC
The COVID-19 outbreak resulted in the increased demand for immunotherapy drugs, which led to a high volume of orders among drug manufacturers, resulting in a higher production volume. The rise in production volumes increased the product profit of various drug component manufacturers. Thus, the procurement of drug components grew during the initial phase of the spread of SARS-CoV-2, thereby boosting the growth of the global immunotherapy drugs market.
The majority of demand was witnessed from the vaccine adjuvant manufacturers. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has granted emergency use authorization for Pfizer/BioNTech and Moderna COVID-19 vaccines. These drugs have been recommended by healthcare professionals to people 16 years of age and older, with a dose of 30 μg (0.3 m) at the cost of US$ 19.50. As a result, the procurement of drugs has increased, which will bolster the immunotherapy drugs market during the forecast period.
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The global immunotherapy drugs market is segmented into five major regions North America, Europe, Asia Pacific, Middle East & Africa, and South & Central America. The report covers analysis and forecast of 18 countries across the world along with trends and opportunities prevailing in the region.
From the regional perspective, North America dominates the immunotherapy drugs market with ~40% market share in 2021. The market growth in the region is majorly attributed to the presence of a large number of immunotherapy drug manufacturers such as F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Pfizer Inc., Merck & Co, Novartis International AG, Johnson & Johnson, Sanofi, and GlaxoSmithKline Plc. The below figure showcase the revenue growth trend in the North America immunotherapy drugs market:
IMPACT OF COVID-19 PANDEMIC
The COVID-19 outbreak resulted in the increased demand for immunotherapy drugs, which led to a high volume of orders among drug manufacturers, resulting in a higher production volume. The rise in production volumes increased the product profit of various drug component manufacturers. Thus, the procurement of drug components grew during the initial phase of the spread of SARS-CoV-2, thereby boosting the growth of the global immunotherapy drugs market.
The majority of demand was witnessed from the vaccine adjuvant manufacturers. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has granted emergency use authorization for Pfizer/BioNTech and Moderna COVID-19 vaccines. These drugs have been recommended by healthcare professionals to people 16 years of age and older, with a dose of 30 μg (0.3 m) at the cost of US$ 19.50. As a result, the procurement of drugs has increased, which will bolster the immunotherapy drugs market during the forecast period.
The report also includes the profiles of key immunotherapy drugs market companies, along with their SWOT analysis and market strategies. In addition, the report focuses on leading industry players with information such as company profiles, components and services offered, financial information for the last three years, and key development in the past five years. The list of a few companies engaged in the immunotherapy drugs market is mentioned below:
- Incyte Corporation
- Juno Therapeutics
- Celldex Therapeutics
- Tesaro, Inc.
- F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd
- Amgen Inc.
- Novartis AG
- BioNTech SE
- Sanofi
- GlaxoSmithKline Plc
- Pfizer Inc.
- Merck & Co
- Johnson & Johnson
The Insight Partner's dedicated research and analysis team consists of experienced professionals with advanced statistical expertise and offers various customization options in the existing study.
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Report Coverage
Revenue forecast, Company Analysis, Industry landscape, Growth factors, and Trends
Segment Covered
Type, Clinical Indication, and End User
Regional Scope
North America, Europe, Asia Pacific, Middle East & Africa, South & Central America
Country Scope
US, UK, Canada, Germany, France, Italy, Australia, Russia, China, Japan, South Korea, Saudi Arabia, Brazil, Argentina
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. SCOPE OF THE STUDY
1.2. THE INSIGHT PARTNERS RESEARCH REPORT GUIDANCE
1.3. MARKET SEGMENTATION
1.3.1 Immunotherapy Drugs Market - By Drug Type
1.3.2 Immunotherapy Drugs Market - By Therapeutic Area
1.3.3 Immunotherapy Drugs Market - By End User
1.3.4 Immunotherapy Drugs Market - By Region
1.3.4.1 By Country
2. KEY TAKEWAYS
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
4. IMMUNOTHERAPY DRUGS MARKET LANDSCAPE
4.1. OVERVIEW
4.2. PEST ANALYSIS
4.3.1 North America - Pest Analysis
4.3.2 Europe - Pest Analysis
4.3.3 Asia-Pacific - Pest Analysis
4.3.4 Middle East and Africa - Pest Analysis
4.3.5 South and Central America - Pest Analysis
4.3. EXPERT OPINIONS
5. IMMUNOTHERAPY DRUGS MARKET - KEY MARKET DYNAMICS
5.1. KEY MARKET DRIVERS
5.2. KEY MARKET RESTRAINTS
5.3. KEY MARKET OPPORTUNITIES
5.4. FUTURE TRENDS
5.5. IMPACT ANALYSIS OF DRIVERS, RESTRAINTS & EXPECTED INFLUENCE OF COVID-19 PANDEMIC
6. IMMUNOTHERAPY DRUGS MARKET - GLOBAL MARKET ANALYSIS
6.1. IMMUNOTHERAPY DRUGS - GLOBAL MARKET OVERVIEW
6.2. IMMUNOTHERAPY DRUGS - GLOBAL MARKET AND FORECAST TO 2028
6.3. MARKET POSITIONING/MARKET SHARE
7. IMMUNOTHERAPY DRUGS MARKET - REVENUE AND FORECASTS TO 2028 - DRUG TYPE
7.1. OVERVIEW
7.2. DRUG TYPE MARKET FORECASTS AND ANALYSIS
7.3. VACCINES
7.3.1. Overview
7.3.2. Vaccines Market Forecast and Analysis
7.4. MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES
7.4.1. Overview
7.4.2. Monoclonal Antibodies Market Forecast and Analysis
7.5. CHECKPOINT INHIBITORS
7.5.1. Overview
7.5.2. Checkpoint Inhibitors Market Forecast and Analysis
7.6. INTERFERONS ALPHA AND BETA
7.6.1. Overview
7.6.2. Interferons Alpha and Beta Market Forecast and Analysis
7.7. INTERLEUKINS
7.7.1. Overview
7.7.2. Interleukins Market Forecast and Analysis
7.8. OTHERS
7.8.1. Overview
7.8.2. Others Market Forecast and Analysis
8. IMMUNOTHERAPY DRUGS MARKET - REVENUE AND FORECASTS TO 2028 - THERAPEUTIC AREA
8.1. OVERVIEW
8.2. THERAPEUTIC AREA MARKET FORECASTS AND ANALYSIS
8.3. AUTOIMMUNE AND INFLAMMATORY DISEASES
8.3.1. Overview
8.3.2. Autoimmune and Inflammatory Diseases Market Forecast and Analysis
8.4. CANCER
8.4.1. Overview
8.4.2. Cancer Market Forecast and Analysis
8.5. INFECTIOUS DISEASES
8.5.1. Overview
8.5.2. Infectious Diseases Market Forecast and Analysis
8.6. OTHERS
8.6.1. Overview
8.6.2. Others Market Forecast and Analysis
9. IMMUNOTHERAPY DRUGS MARKET - REVENUE AND FORECASTS TO 2028 - END USER
9.1. OVERVIEW
9.2. END USER MARKET FORECASTS AND ANALYSIS
9.3. HOSPITALS
9.3.1. Overview
9.3.2. Hospitals Market Forecast and Analysis
9.4. RESEARCH CENTERS
9.4.1. Overview
9.4.2. Research Centers Market Forecast and Analysis
9.5. OTHERS
9.5.1. Overview
9.5.2. Others Market Forecast and Analysis
10. IMMUNOTHERAPY DRUGS MARKET REVENUE AND FORECASTS TO 2028 - GEOGRAPHICAL ANALYSIS
10.1. NORTH AMERICA
10.1.1 North America Immunotherapy Drugs Market Overview
10.1.2 North America Immunotherapy Drugs Market Forecasts and Analysis
10.1.3 North America Market Forecasts and Analysis - By Drug Type
10.1.4 North America Market Forecasts and Analysis - By Therapeutic Area
10.1.5 North America Market Forecasts and Analysis - By End User
10.1.6 North America Market Forecasts and Analysis - By Countries
10.1.6.1 United States Market
10.1.6.1.1 United States Market by Drug Type
10.1.6.1.2 United States Market by Therapeutic Area
10.1.6.1.3 United States Market by End User
10.1.6.2 Canada Market
10.1.6.2.1 Canada Market by Drug Type
10.1.6.2.2 Canada Market by Therapeutic Area
10.1.6.2.3 Canada Market by End User
10.1.6.3 Mexico Market
10.1.6.3.1 Mexico Market by Drug Type
10.1.6.3.2 Mexico Market by Therapeutic Area
10.1.6.3.3 Mexico Market by End User
10.2. EUROPE
10.2.1 Europe Immunotherapy Drugs Market Overview
10.2.2 Europe Immunotherapy Drugs Market Forecasts and Analysis
10.2.3 Europe Market Forecasts and Analysis - By Drug Type
10.2.4 Europe Market Forecasts and Analysis - By Therapeutic Area
10.2.5 Europe Market Forecasts and Analysis - By End User
10.2.6 Europe Market Forecasts and Analysis - By Countries
10.2.6.1 Germany Market
10.2.6.1.1 Germany Market by Drug Type
10.2.6.1.2 Germany Market by Therapeutic Area
10.2.6.1.3 Germany Market by End User
10.2.6.2 France Market
10.2.6.2.1 France Market by Drug Type
10.2.6.2.2 France Market by Therapeutic Area
10.2.6.2.3 France Market by End User
10.2.6.3 Italy Market
10.2.6.3.1 Italy Market by Drug Type
10.2.6.3.2 Italy Market by Therapeutic Area
10.2.6.3.3 Italy Market by End User
10.2.6.4 Spain Market
10.2.6.4.1 Spain Market by Drug Type
10.2.6.4.2 Spain Market by Therapeutic Area
10.2.6.4.3 Spain Market by End User
10.2.6.5 United Kingdom Market
10.2.6.5.1 United Kingdom Market by Drug Type
10.2.6.5.2 United Kingdom Market by Therapeutic Area
10.2.6.5.3 United Kingdom Market by End User
10.3. ASIA-PACIFIC
10.3.1 Asia-Pacific Immunotherapy Drugs Market Overview
10.3.2 Asia-Pacific Immunotherapy Drugs Market Forecasts and Analysis
10.3.3 Asia-Pacific Market Forecasts and Analysis - By Drug Type
10.3.4 Asia-Pacific Market Forecasts and Analysis - By Therapeutic Area
10.3.5 Asia-Pacific Market Forecasts and Analysis - By End User
10.3.6 Asia-Pacific Market Forecasts and Analysis - By Countries
10.3.6.1 Australia Market
10.3.6.1.1 Australia Market by Drug Type
10.3.6.1.2 Australia Market by Therapeutic Area
10.3.6.1.3 Australia Market by End User
10.3.6.2 China Market
10.3.6.2.1 China Market by Drug Type
10.3.6.2.2 China Market by Therapeutic Area
10.3.6.2.3 China Market by End User
10.3.6.3 India Market
10.3.6.3.1 India Market by Drug Type
10.3.6.3.2 India Market by Therapeutic Area
10.3.6.3.3 India Market by End User
10.3.6.4 Japan Market
10.3.6.4.1 Japan Market by Drug Type
10.3.6.4.2 Japan Market by Therapeutic Area
10.3.6.4.3 Japan Market by End User
10.3.6.5 South Korea Market
10.3.6.5.1 South Korea Market by Drug Type
10.3.6.5.2 South Korea Market by Therapeutic Area
10.3.6.5.3 South Korea Market by End User
10.4. MIDDLE EAST AND AFRICA
10.4.1 Middle East and Africa Immunotherapy Drugs Market Overview
10.4.2 Middle East and Africa Immunotherapy Drugs Market Forecasts and Analysis
10.4.3 Middle East and Africa Market Forecasts and Analysis - By Drug Type
10.4.4 Middle East and Africa Market Forecasts and Analysis - By Therapeutic Area
10.4.5 Middle East and Africa Market Forecasts and Analysis - By End User
10.4.6 Middle East and Africa Market Forecasts and Analysis - By Countries
10.4.6.1 South Africa Market
10.4.6.1.1 South Africa Market by Drug Type
10.4.6.1.2 South Africa Market by Therapeutic Area
10.4.6.1.3 South Africa Market by End User
10.4.6.2 Saudi Arabia Market
10.4.6.2.1 Saudi Arabia Market by Drug Type
10.4.6.2.2 Saudi Arabia Market by Therapeutic Area
10.4.6.2.3 Saudi Arabia Market by End User
10.4.6.3 U.A.E Market
10.4.6.3.1 U.A.E Market by Drug Type
10.4.6.3.2 U.A.E Market by Therapeutic Area
10.4.6.3.3 U.A.E Market by End User
10.5. SOUTH AND CENTRAL AMERICA
10.5.1 South and Central America Immunotherapy Drugs Market Overview
10.5.2 South and Central America Immunotherapy Drugs Market Forecasts and Analysis
10.5.3 South and Central America Market Forecasts and Analysis - By Drug Type
10.5.4 South and Central America Market Forecasts and Analysis - By Therapeutic Area
10.5.5 South and Central America Market Forecasts and Analysis - By End User
10.5.6 South and Central America Market Forecasts and Analysis - By Countries
10.5.6.1 Brazil Market
10.5.6.1.1 Brazil Market by Drug Type
10.5.6.1.2 Brazil Market by Therapeutic Area
10.5.6.1.3 Brazil Market by End User
10.5.6.2 Argentina Market
10.5.6.2.1 Argentina Market by Drug Type
10.5.6.2.2 Argentina Market by Therapeutic Area
10.5.6.2.3 Argentina Market by End User
11. INDUSTRY LANDSCAPE
11.1. MERGERS AND ACQUISITIONS
11.2. AGREEMENTS, COLLABORATIONS AND JOIN VENTURES
11.3. NEW PRODUCT LAUNCHES
11.4. EXPANSIONS AND OTHER STRATEGIC DEVELOPMENTS
12. IMMUNOTHERAPY DRUGS MARKET, KEY COMPANY PROFILES
12.1. ELI LILLY AND COMPANY
12.1.1. Key Facts
12.1.2. Business Description
12.1.3. Products and Services
12.1.4. Financial Overview
12.1.5. SWOT Analysis
12.1.6. Key Developments
12.2. ASTRAZENECA
12.2.1. Key Facts
12.2.2. Business Description
12.2.3. Products and Services
12.2.4. Financial Overview
12.2.5. SWOT Analysis
12.2.6. Key Developments
12.3. ABBVIE
12.3.1. Key Facts
12.3.2. Business Description
12.3.3. Products and Services
12.3.4. Financial Overview
12.3.5. SWOT Analysis
12.3.6. Key Developments
12.4. AMGEN INC
12.4.1. Key Facts
12.4.2. Business Description
12.4.3. Products and Services
12.4.4. Financial Overview
12.4.5. SWOT Analysis
12.4.6. Key Developments
12.5. GLAXOSMITHKLINE PLC
12.5.1. Key Facts
12.5.2. Business Description
12.5.3. Products and Services
12.5.4. Financial Overview
12.5.5. SWOT Analysis
12.5.6. Key Developments
12.6. NOVARTIS INTERNATIONAL AG
12.6.1. Key Facts
12.6.2. Business Description
12.6.3. Products and Services
12.6.4. Financial Overview
12.6.5. SWOT Analysis
12.6.6. Key Developments
12.7. MERCK AND CO., INC.
12.7.1. Key Facts
12.7.2. Business Description
12.7.3. Products and Services
12.7.4. Financial Overview
12.7.5. SWOT Analysis
12.7.6. Key Developments
12.8. F. HOFFMANN-LA ROCHE AG
12.8.1. Key Facts
12.8.2. Business Description
12.8.3. Products and Services
12.8.4. Financial Overview
12.8.5. SWOT Analysis
12.8.6. Key Developments
12.9. BRISTOL-MYERS SQUIBB
12.9.1. Key Facts
12.9.2. Business Description
12.9.3. Products and Services
12.9.4. Financial Overview
12.9.5. SWOT Analysis
12.9.6. Key Developments
12.10 UBIVAC
12.10.1. Key Facts
12.10.2. Business Description
12.10.3. Products and Services
12.10.4. Financial Overview
12.10.5. SWOT Analysis
12.10.6. Key Developments
13. APPENDIX
13.1. ABOUT THE INSIGHT PARTNERS
13.2. GLOSSARY OF TERMS
The List of Companies
1. Eli Lilly and Company
2. Astrazeneca
3. Abbvie
4. Amgen inc
5. GlaxoSmithKline Plc
6. Novartis International AG
7. Merck and Co., Inc
8. F. Hoffmann-La Roche AG
9. Bristol-Myers Squibb
10. UbiVac
The Insight Partners performs research in 4 major stages: Data Collection & Secondary Research, Primary Research, Data Analysis and Data Triangulation & Final Review.
- Data Collection and Secondary Research:
As a market research and consulting firm operating from a decade, we have published many reports and advised several clients across the globe. First step for any study will start with an assessment of currently available data and insights from existing reports. Further, historical and current market information is collected from Investor Presentations, Annual Reports, SEC Filings, etc., and other information related to company’s performance and market positioning are gathered from Paid Databases (Factiva, Hoovers, and Reuters) and various other publications available in public domain.
Several associations trade associates, technical forums, institutes, societies and organizations are accessed to gain technical as well as market related insights through their publications such as research papers, blogs and press releases related to the studies are referred to get cues about the market. Further, white papers, journals, magazines, and other news articles published in the last 3 years are scrutinized and analyzed to understand the current market trends.
- Primary Research:
The primarily interview analysis comprise of data obtained from industry participants interview and answers to survey questions gathered by in-house primary team.
For primary research, interviews are conducted with industry experts/CEOs/Marketing Managers/Sales Managers/VPs/Subject Matter Experts from both demand and supply side to get a 360-degree view of the market. The primary team conducts several interviews based on the complexity of the markets to understand the various market trends and dynamics which makes research more credible and precise.
A typical research interview fulfils the following functions:
- Provides first-hand information on the market size, market trends, growth trends, competitive landscape, and outlook
- Validates and strengthens in-house secondary research findings
- Develops the analysis team’s expertise and market understanding
Primary research involves email interactions and telephone interviews for each market, category, segment, and sub-segment across geographies. The participants who typically take part in such a process include, but are not limited to:
- Industry participants: VPs, business development managers, market intelligence managers and national sales managers
- Outside experts: Valuation experts, research analysts and key opinion leaders specializing in the electronics and semiconductor industry.
Below is the breakup of our primary respondents by company, designation, and region:
Once we receive the confirmation from primary research sources or primary respondents, we finalize the base year market estimation and forecast the data as per the macroeconomic and microeconomic factors assessed during data collection.
- Data Analysis:
Once data is validated through both secondary as well as primary respondents, we finalize the market estimations by hypothesis formulation and factor analysis at regional and country level.
- 3.1 Macro-Economic Factor Analysis:
We analyse macroeconomic indicators such the gross domestic product (GDP), increase in the demand for goods and services across industries, technological advancement, regional economic growth, governmental policies, the influence of COVID-19, PEST analysis, and other aspects. This analysis aids in setting benchmarks for various nations/regions and approximating market splits. Additionally, the general trend of the aforementioned components aid in determining the market's development possibilities.
- 3.2 Country Level Data:
Various factors that are especially aligned to the country are taken into account to determine the market size for a certain area and country, including the presence of vendors, such as headquarters and offices, the country's GDP, demand patterns, and industry growth. To comprehend the market dynamics for the nation, a number of growth variables, inhibitors, application areas, and current market trends are researched. The aforementioned elements aid in determining the country's overall market's growth potential.
- 3.3 Company Profile:
The “Table of Contents” is formulated by listing and analyzing more than 25 - 30 companies operating in the market ecosystem across geographies. However, we profile only 10 companies as a standard practice in our syndicate reports. These 10 companies comprise leading, emerging, and regional players. Nonetheless, our analysis is not restricted to the 10 listed companies, we also analyze other companies present in the market to develop a holistic view and understand the prevailing trends. The “Company Profiles” section in the report covers key facts, business description, products & services, financial information, SWOT analysis, and key developments. The financial information presented is extracted from the annual reports and official documents of the publicly listed companies. Upon collecting the information for the sections of respective companies, we verify them via various primary sources and then compile the data in respective company profiles. The company level information helps us in deriving the base number as well as in forecasting the market size.
- 3.4 Developing Base Number:
Aggregation of sales statistics (2020-2022) and macro-economic factor, and other secondary and primary research insights are utilized to arrive at base number and related market shares for 2022. The data gaps are identified in this step and relevant market data is analyzed, collected from paid primary interviews or databases. On finalizing the base year market size, forecasts are developed on the basis of macro-economic, industry and market growth factors and company level analysis.
- Data Triangulation and Final Review:
The market findings and base year market size calculations are validated from supply as well as demand side. Demand side validations are based on macro-economic factor analysis and benchmarks for respective regions and countries. In case of supply side validations, revenues of major companies are estimated (in case not available) based on industry benchmark, approximate number of employees, product portfolio, and primary interviews revenues are gathered. Further revenue from target product/service segment is assessed to avoid overshooting of market statistics. In case of heavy deviations between supply and demand side values, all thes steps are repeated to achieve synchronization.
We follow an iterative model, wherein we share our research findings with Subject Matter Experts (SME’s) and Key Opinion Leaders (KOLs) until consensus view of the market is not formulated – this model negates any drastic deviation in the opinions of experts. Only validated and universally acceptable research findings are quoted in our reports.
We have important check points that we use to validate our research findings – which we call – data triangulation, where we validate the information, we generate from secondary sources with primary interviews and then we re-validate with our internal data bases and Subject matter experts. This comprehensive model enables us to deliver high quality, reliable data in shortest possible time.